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Kashmir:
Where Sufis are Rishis and Rishis are Sufis!
By Sultan Shaheen
“The
most dominant influence on the Kashmiri Muslims, in terms of
their Kashmiriyat, is that of the Rishi order of
Sufis. While the Sufi orders like the Suharwardi, Kubravi,
Naqshbandi and Quadri, arrived in Kashmir from Persia,
Central Asia, and Central and North India, the Rishi
order evolved in the valley itself indigenously in the
beginning of the fifteenth century. The Kashmir valley was
already permeated with the traditions of Hindu ascetism and
Buddhist renunciation.
The term
`Rishi' itself is clearly a derivation from Sanskrit
and Indian traditions, though some Medieval Muslim scholars
have tried to show that it is derived from the Persian word
raish or rish meaning the feathers or wings of
a bird. Baba Dawood Mishkati, for instance, gives a rather
tortuous explanation. A bird whose feathers have been
removed has no control over its own movements and depends
entirely on the wind. And this is also the case with a
Rishi; he is alienated from the world and lives alone,
buffeted by fate. This and similar explanations, have,
however, failed to impress the average Kashmiri Muslim and
he, by and large, accepts its Sanskrit derivation and uses
it loosely like his Hindus brethren as synonymous for a
sage. In fact many Kashmiris do not even associate the word
with any particular order of sufis, but use the word to
denote any and every sufi saint.
The
indigenous Rishi order of Sufis, however, does differ
not only from the establishmentarian and fundamentalist
Muslims but also from other Sufi orders in its philosophy
and way of life. Many writers who have chronicled the life
and times of Kashmiris of this period have been attracted to
the unique way of life and philosophy of the Rishi
order of Sufis. . . .
This
account is corroborated by Emperor Jahangir. He writes:
"Although they have not acquired learning and marifa,
they live a frank and unostentatious life. They criticise
nobody and ask for nothing from anyone. They neither eat
meat nor marry. They always plant fruit-bearing trees in
uninhabited parts, so that people may be benefited by them.
But they themselves do not hope to reap any advantages from
these trees."
The
Kashmiri Muslim Rishi's ascetic and unworldly life
thus bears a close resemblance to the lifestyle of the Hindu
Rishis and Munis as well as Buddhist and Jain
monks. Baba Dawood Khaki describes a Rishi as one who
is an ascetic and leads a disciplined life different from
those of other saints. He is free from all worldly
pleasures. Baba Nasib calls them gracious to the pious and
describes them as men of pure heart. Their presence has
turned Kashmir into heaven, he says. Cutting themselves away
from all worldly relationships, they neither marry nor
bother themselves with a family life. Piety is their apparel
(khirqa); their nights are devoted to worship and
during the day they worship incessantly. Having abandoned
all worldly desires, they have succeeded in controlling
their carnal lusts.
With such
deep commitment to spiritual growth and the Islamic
philosophy of Divine Unity (wahdat-ul-wajud), which
is not different from Hindu philosophy of no duality (Advaita),
it is not at all surprising that the Rishis
consistently preached complete harmony among different
religions and peace and understanding among their followers.
Aware of the tension created between Hindus and Muslims
during the reign of Sultan Sikandar, one of the foremost
Rishis, Sheikh Nooruddin wrote:
"We
belong to the same parents.
Then why this difference?
Let Hindus and Muslims (together)
Worship God alone.
We came to this world like partners.
We should have shared our joys
and sorrows together."
Shiekh
Nooruddin himself faced restrictions during the reign of
Suha Bhatt who like grandfather, had started persecuting
non-Muslims in his new-found Islamic zeal, the Sheikh's
message, however, was not confined to Hindus and Muslims
alone. It was meant for mankind as a whole. That is why his
sayings and his verses have acquired a proverbial character
and are routinely referred to by Kashmiris of all hues in
their daily life. Another reason for the popularity of his
verses and that of many other Rishis may be the fact
that being men of the people they expressed their thoughts
in the simple language used by common people.
The
message given by Rishis or even Sufis of previous
orders, however, is always the same - the divine unity of
all that is. In fact it is the sufis of previous orders who
had arrived from Central Asia, and who had prepared the
ground for the emergence of Rishis with their
powerful message of religious synthesis. One poem
particularly comes to mind. This is from the verses of Sarfi,
a sufi of the Kubravi Order.
O,
Sarfi! What benefit are you going to
gain from the pilgrimage,
If Kaaba , temple and tavern are not identical with you.
O, Sarfi! As on every side a ray has
fallen from His face to light the night,
Impossible it is for you to say that Somnath
has not the Kaaba's light.
I see that comely face manifest in
whatever I regard,
Though I look at a hundred thousand
mirrors in all that one face is manifest. . . .
The
relationship between the broad-minded sufis(mystics) and
conservative ulema has never been cordial in most
Muslim societies. But whereas the sufis were on the margins
of society in other places, in Kashmir they were the
dominant influence. This is what makes the Kashmiri Muslim
society different from other Muslim societies. This made it
possible for the sufi in Kashmir to rebuke the preacher
rather than being the target of abuse as in other places.
Sheikh
Nooruddin, for instance, can afford to be highly critical of
the Mullas who make it their profession to recite the
Quran and get money in return. He calls them veritable
patterns of hypocrisy, one of the greatest crimes in Islam.
The Mullas pursue knowledge for purely selfish
reasons. He describes them in these words: "They wear big
turbans and long garments; they carry sticks in their hands;
they go from place to place and sell their prayers and fasts
in return for food." The Rishi-sufi appears to have
nothing but contempt for this tribe of people:
"A
spiritual guide seems like a pot full of nectar,
Which may be trickling down in drops.
Having a heap of books beside him,
He may have become confused by reading them.
On examining him we found him empty in mind.
He may be preaching to others but forgetting himself."
"O Mulla your rosary is like a snake,
You begin to count the beads when
Your disciples come near,
You eat six meals one after the other,
If you are Mulla, then who are the thieves?"
Sheikh
Nooruddin is almost prophetic, when he makes the following
prognosis:
"The
people of Kali-Yuga in every house
will pretend to be saints,
As a prostitute does when dancing.
They will pretend to be innocent and extremely gentle,
They will not sow beans, cotton seeds or grains.
They will excel thieves in living by unlawful means,
To hide themselves they will repair to a forest."
What
keeps Kashmiri mystics firmly anchored in the Indian soil is
their meditative technique. By and large they use variations
of pas-e-anfaas (watching the breath). This is
similar to various techniques of pranayama widely
practised in India's Hath-Yoga traditions. These
meditative techniques were being practised initially by the
Shaivaite yogis of Kashmir before the advent of Islam. What
Sufis appear to have done is that they have added the
repetition of the word of Allah of Huwwa to
their meditative technique.
THE FASCINATING STORY OF KASHMIRI MYSTICISM
It was
fifty years ago when the state of Jammu and Kashmir acceded
to India. The most remarkable event of those stormy time in
our history, however, is the fact that Kashmir's Muslims
stayed secular in this hour of their gravest trial. It was
no mean thing, for them, unlike even their brethren in
Mirpur and Poonch, not to speak of other parts of the
country, to hear horrendous stories of communal carnage
involving millions of Hindus and Muslims and remain utterly
unaffected. Instead of giving in to the deadly and rampant
communal virus, Kashmiri Muslims waited for and welcomed
Indian troops, fifty years ago, to help them in their fight
against Pakistani Muslim tribal raiders.
Kashmir
has been in the grip of militant separatism for years now. A
Muslim-majority region has been seeking to secede from a
Hindu-majority country. This is bound to create the
impression of communalism and obscurantism rampant in that
state. And yet, barring the misdeeds of isolated groups,
largely funded from abroad, the masses of people remain
extraordinarily secular. Nothing could demonstrate this
better than the fact that ordinary Kashmiri Muslims are even
today eagerly awaiting the return of their Pundit brothers
and sisters who had left the valley at the height of
militancy. As reported by Rashmi Sehgal in the Times of
India recently, the few Kashmiri Pundits who have
returned have received a very warm welcome indeed.
It has
surprised many observers that, contrary to the general
experience of communal rioting in most parts of the
sub-continent, Kashmiri Muslims have been looking after the
homes and hearths of their migrated Hindu brothers for years
in the fond hope that one day there would be peace and they
would be able to return. The demolition of the Babri Masjid
at Ayodhya was followed by the demolition of numerous Hindu
temples in the Muslim Bangladesh and Pakistan, but temples
in Kashmir, as very dramatically demonstrated by India
Today's video-magazine, remained safe from the effects
of Islamic frenzy seen elsewhere in the sub-continent,
contrary to the claims made by vested interests.
Where
from does this deep commitment to secularism, to a composite
Hindu-Muslim culture emanate? What is the source of this
deep connection with India? Why is Kashmiriyat so important
to the Kashmiri Muslim? I think the answer lies in the
eclectic and syncretic nature of the Kashmiri Muslims'
philosophy of life, his spiritual beliefs. It is the impact
of Sufi and Rishi visions of Islam that have helped
him synthesis the teachings of Prophet Mohammad with the
teachings of earlier sages of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism. While elsewhere in the sub-continent, too, their
pre-Islamic beliefs, it is in Kashmir alone that one finds
them claiming their ancient Indian, particularly Vedic and
Buddhist heritage consciously.
The
explanation perhaps lies in the history of the spread of
Islam in this region. Definite historical facts that would
account for the extraordinarily large number of conversions
that took place in Kashmir are not available, as Sir Thomas
Arnold points out with regret in his highly regarded book
"Preaching of Islam." But whatever scanty information is
available leads us to attribute this surprising phenomenon
to a long and continuous missionary movement carried out by
sufi saints, pirs, faqirs, darvaishes and ulema. The Islamic
missionary entered the valley at a time when, in the words
of W. R. Lawrence (The Valley of Kashmir) it "was a country
of drunkards and gamblers." Such an atmosphere is very much
suited for the spread of a new philosophy or religion.
In the
introduction to his English translation of Rajatrangini,
another authority on Kashmir, Dr. M. A. Stein maintains that
Islam made its way into the valley not necessarily by
forcible conquest but by gradual conversion, for which the
influx of foreign adventurers from the south and central
Asia had prepared the ground. Bulbul Shah, also known as
Sharf-ud-Deen Syed Abdur Rahman Turkistani, was one such
adventurer, a mystic, who acquired the first notable success
in the spread of Islam in the form of the conversion of
Ranchan Shah who became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir
and assumed the name sultan Sadr-ud-Deen.
The
conversion of Ranchan Shah, also known as Ratanju, Ratanchan
and Ranju Shah, in the early fourteenth century, was
followed by his brother-in-law and commander-in-chief and
several other notables embracing Islam. One of the main
reasons of Ranchan's conversion was his anger with the
Brahmins who had refused to incorporate a Tibetan like
Ranchan to the top of their cast hierarchy and accord to him
the rites of royalty. He took it out on the Brahmins,
coercing several of them to convert. But the charms of the
mystics also had a hand in all this. A place of residence
was set up on the bank of the Vitasta for the revered saint
Bulbul Shah. This is known as Bulbul Kankar. The first
mosque in Kashmir was also built at this place. Bulbul Shah
died in 1327 A.D. He was a Syed from Turkistan and believed
by some historians to be a disciple of Sheikh Shahab-ud-Deen
Suharwardy. Others believe that he was a disciple of Shah
Niamatullah Wali, a khalifa of the Suharwardy tareeq(school).
Several
other Syeds arrived in the valley and encouraged the spread
of Islam further. Prominent among them are the following:
1. Syed
Jalal-ud-Deen of Bokhara,
known as Makhdum Jahanian Jahangir, the disciple of Sheikh
Rukun-ud-Deen Alam, who arrived in 1348 A.D. and left
Kashmir after a short stay.
2. Sayed
Taj-ud-Deen,
the cousin of Mir Syed Ali Hamadani(Shah Hamadan), arrived
in 1360 A.D. in the reign of Sultan Shahab-ud-Deen. He was
accompanied by Syed Masud and Syed Yusuf, his disciples, who
lie buried near his tomb in Mohalla Shahab-ud-Deen Pura.
3. Syed
Hussain Samnani,
the younger brother of Syed Taj-ud-Deen, a disciple of
Sheikh Rukun-ud-Deen Alam, who came in 1373 A.D.
There is
evidence to suggest that the two brothers Syed Taj-ud-Deen
and Syed Hussain were sent to Kashmir by Syed Ali Hamadani
better known as Hamadan Shah to explore the possibility of
Kashmir providing the Syeds of Turkistan a peaceful refuge
from the persecution of Timur, who seemed determined to
massacre this powerful family on some political
considerations.
Shah
Hamadan wielded an extraordinary influence on the spread of
Islam in the valley of Kashmir. Born in 1314 A.D. at Hamadan
in Persia, the Syed was the son of Syed Shahabud-Deen.
Having memorised the Holy Quran in his early boyhood and
having studied theology later, he became interested in
Tasawuf (mysticism) and learnt its first principles form his
maternal uncle Syed Ali-ud-Deen. He became a disciple of
sufi saints Sheikh Abdul Barkat Taqi-ud-Deen and after his
death Sheikh Sharif-ud-Deen Mahmud Muzdaqani. His teachers
advised him to complete his education by extensive travels
in the world. Shah Hamadan followed this advice and visited
several countries. In his 21-year long journey he came in
contact with several sufis and mystics form various parts of
the world. As he returned to his native place, Timur started
the persecution of Syeds. This forced him to leave for
Kashmir, where he was given shelter in the true Indian
tradition. Seven hundred Syeds are said to have accompanied
him to Kashmir in the reign of Sultan Shahab-ud-Deen in 1372
A.D.
The
migration of so many Syeds along with Shah Hamadan further
accelerated the conversion of the great mass of Kashmiris to
Islam. But it also gave a mystical color to the new religion
that the majority of the people embraced. Prominent among
Shah Hamadan's followers who made the greatest contribution
were: Mir Syed Haider, Syed Jamal-ud-Deen, Syed Kamal, Syed
Kamal-i- Saini, Syed Jamal-ud-Deen Alai, Syed Foroz alias
Syed Jalal, Syed Mohammad Kazim, Syed Rukun-ud-Deen, Syed
Mohammad Qureishi and Syed Azizullah.
These
mystic divines established hermitages all over the country
which served as centres for the propagation of their
beliefs. The present Ziarat (shrine) of Shah Hamadan is said
to have been erected on a spot which he used as retreat on
the Vitasta. This is where he sued to discuss religion and
philosophy with the Hindu divines and sanyasis and test
their so-called supernatural powers. It has also left an
indelible impression on the Kashmiri mind as many of the
points raised and discussed here have become part of the
local folk lore.
Another
wave of Syeds came from Turkistan in 1396 A.D. along with
the 22-year old son of Shah Hamadan, Mir Mohammad. Three
hundred Syeds came this time in the reign of Sultan Sikandar.
The Sultan's Prime Minister was a Brahmin named Malik Siya
Butt. Impressed with a dialogue with Mir Mohammad, Siya Butt
converted to Islam along with his family and many followers
and assumed the name Malik Safi-ud-Deen. He married his
daughter re-named Bibi Barea to Mir Mohammad. Sayed Mir
Mohammad's influence resulted in the prohibition of
distillation and sale of wine. Gambling and Sati (the
practice of wives being burnt on the pyre of their dead
husbands) were also forbidden. He passed away in 1354 A.D.
and was buried near his father Khatlan.
The
advent of such a large number eminent Syeds who were seeking
refuge from persecution of Timur left a great impression on
the valley. As G.M.D. Sufi writes in his valuable
contribution, `Islamic Culture in Kashmir', "Deeply
imbued with the sufism of the age and country from which
they emigrated, these Syeds and their followers seem to have
simulated the tendency to mysticism for which Buddhism and
Vedantism had already paved the way." Perhaps also
shocked refuge in the regions of abstract thought as solace
for the worldly repression under which they laboured.
"One
cannot forget", says Col. Newall in the journal of the
Bengal Asiatic Society, "that the human mind has ever tended
towards mysticism and solitude at times when tyrants
flourished, and in the present case, no doubt, the wrath of
Timur had been aroused against these Syeds, who perhaps may
have attempted to adopt an independence of act and speech
displeasing to the great conqueror". As Sufi further avers
the presence of these types of Syeds naturally influenced
the more pronounced mystics of Kashmir, who, as the
well-known Rishis or Babas or hermits, considerably
furthered the spread of Islam by their piety and utter
self-abnegation. They had nothing to do with the state's
coersion.
The
Mughal King Jahangir did not think much of their learning
and says in his Memoirs: "Though they (Sufis, Rishis
and mystics) do not have religious learning or knowledge of
any sort, yet they possess simplicity and are without
pretence. They abuse no one, they restrain the tongue of
desire, and the foot of seeking; they eat no flesh, they
have no wives, and always plant fruit-bearing trees in the
fields so that men may benefit by them, themselves desiring
no advantage There are about 2,000 of these people."
Saints
and Rishis like Sheikh Nur-ud-Deen, Baba Pom Rishi,
Baba Bam-ud-Deen, Sheikh Hamza Makhdumi, Syed Ahmad Kirmani,
Syed Muhammad Hisari, and Baba Zain-ud-Deen by their example
and precept smoothed the path of Islam in its slow, steady
and systematic conversion of particularly the entire valley.
Farishta and Abul Fazl have also described them in words of
high praise, as abstaining from luxury, living on berries
and wild fruits of the mountains, in the remote corners of
which many of them had taken their abodes for purposes of
meditation and seclusion. In some instances they had
constructed ziarates or shrines, many of which remain to
this day, attesting in their traditions their founders'
austerities and virtues, and forming local schools of holy
men or priests whose influence was beneficial to the people
as promulgating the principles of humanity and moral
virtues.
Having
wielded tremendous influence on the Kashmiri society, Sheikh
Noor-ud-Deen is considered the national saint of Kashmir.
His parents belonged to the family of Rajas of Kishtwar.
They embraced Islam at the hands of Yasman Rishi, the
younger brother of Palasman and Khalasman Rishis.
Yasman Rishi is remembered for his wide travels on
the back of a tiger subsisting entirely on a cup of wild
goat's milk. He took great personal interest in the
upbringing of Shiekh Noor-ud-Deen.
Born in a
village called Kemoh in 1379 A.D., Sheikh Noor-ud-Deen
renounced the world early in life and retired to the caves
for meditation. He is said to have lived in the wildness for
twelve years subsisting on just grass. After that he
sustained life on one cup of milk daily, and finally on
water alone for two and half years before his death at the
age of 63 in the reign of Sultan Zain-ul-Aedin in 1442 A.D.
His tomb at Chara Sharif, 15 kilometres from Srinagar is
visited daily by thousands of people and anecdotes about the
simplicity and purity of his life are on the lips of all
Kashmiris till today. A large number of people embraced
Islam impressed by the simplicity of his lifestyle and the
clarity of his teachings and preachings. No wonder the
destruction of the tomb a couple of years ago had shocked
Kashmiris out of their wits and had occasioned intense
mourning among Muslims throughout India.
The
Mughal rule provided further impetus to the spread of Islam,
as many learned ulema and mystics arrived in the valley
during this period. Some miracles are said to have been
performed by Syed Shah Farid-ud-Deen Qadri of Baghdad. They
impressed the Rajput Raja of Kishtwar so much that he
embraced Islam in the reign of Aurangzeb. His conversion was
followed by the majority of his subjects. The process
continued during the Afghan rule as well.
Thus, the
process that had been started by a simple faqir called
Bulbul Shah was continued by a volley of saints and mystics,
Rishis and faqirs, ulema and learned men. No generals
like Mohammadbin Qasim or warriors like Shahab-ud-Deen or
conquerors like Mahmud were involved. No wonder the colour
of Islam in the valley is still so deeply mystical and
deeply respectful of other religions.
It is
extremely depressing to see people with such mystical
traditions living in such violent times. This is no place to
discuss the rights and wrongs of the clashing points of
view. But it is difficult to see Kashmir living permanently
in the grip of obscurantism and what is mistakenly call
fundamentalism. Indeed in my incorrigible optimism, I still
see Kashmir's sufis and Rishis leading India itself
to a higher level of spiritual development.”
Sultan Shaheen
Kashmir: Where Sufis are Rishis and Rishis are Sufis!
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